Introduction to Flash Memory

The most relevant phenomenon of this past decade in the field of semiconductor memories has been the explosive growth of the Flash memory market, driven by cellular phones and other types of electronic portable equipment (palm top, mobile PC, mp3 audio player, digital camera, and so on). Moreover, in the coming years, portable systems will demand even more nonvolatile memories, either with high density and very high writing throughput for data storage application or with fast random access for code execution in place. The strong consolidated know-how (more than ten years of experience), the flexibility, and the cost make the Flash memory a largely utilized, well-consolidated, and mature technology for most of the nonvolatile memory applications. Today, Flash sales represent a considerable amount of the overall semiconductor market. Although in the past different types of Flash cells and architectures have been proposed, today two of them can be considered as industry standard: the common ground NOR Flash, that due to its versatility is addressing both the code and data storage segments, and the NAND Flash, optimized for the data storage market. This paper will mainly focus on the development of the NOR Flash memory technology, with the aim of describing both the basic functionality of the memory cell used so far and the main cell architecture consolidated today. The NOR cell is basically a floating-gate MOS transistor, programmed by channel hot electron and erased by Fowler–Nordheim tunneling. The main reliability issues, such as charge retention and endurance, will be discussed, together with the understanding of the basic physical mechanisms responsible. Most of these considerations are also valid for the NAND cell, since it is based on the same concept of floating-gate MOS transistor. Furthermore, an insight into the multilevel approach, where two bits are stored in the same cell, will be presented. In fact, the exploitation of the multilevel approach at each technology node allows the increase of the memory efficiency, almost doubling the density at the same chip size, enlarging the application range, and reducing the cost per bit. Finally, the NOR Flash cell scaling issues will be covered, pointing out the main challenges. The Flash cell scaling has been demonstrated to be really possible and to be able to follow the Moore’s law down to the 130-nm technology generations. The technology development and the consolidated know-how is expected to sustain the scaling trend down to the 90and 65-nm technology nodes as forecasted by the International Technology Roadmap of Semiconductors. One of the crucial issues to be solved